week 3 assignment #2 Chronology of Events

Text: "Tongue Tied"

Chronology of Events, Court Decisions, and Legislation Affecting Language Minority Children in American Public Education. pg 87

Assignment#2 Critical Response Read and review three major groups of language minority students who continue to be negatively affected by U.S. public school policy. Reflect and summaries on key years where growth was starting to take place. 

The three groups are American Indians, descendants of Africans, and the last, as well as largest, is Latinos.

To me, the chronology of events helps me understand the American bilingual history a lot. I organized the following combination from "Tongue Tied" and " Foundations of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism". After studying the charts, I realized the racial issues in the US could be varied in the different state. Based on the history, stereotype, personal assumption and so forth, there is still a long way to go. But as a bilingual teacher, we are the frontline to protect our students, our future. 

YEAR	US LEGISLATION/LITIGATION AFFECTING BILINGUAL EDUCATION	DEFINITION
1663		Reverend John Eliot publishes the New Testament in the Massachusetts language, with the help of Indian translators and printers.
1819		Congress earmarks ten thousand dollars for religious mission dedicated to India education. U.S. efforts for Indian education provide financial support to Protestant and Catholic church missions for several decades.
1850		Spain opens public schools in Puerto Rico for children who cannot afford the fees charged by private schools. They are immediately filled to overcapacity.
1860		Bureau of Indian Affairs opens its first school on the Yakima Indian Reservation. The school was partial payment in exchange for one-third of Washington State.
1868		President Grant appoints Peace Commissioners to attempt to bring the Indian wars to an end. The commission concludes that language differences led to misunderstandings.
1880		A correspondent traveling with the U.S. Secretary of the Interior Carl Schurz reports, ‘’Mr. [Stephen R.] Riggs is of the opinion that first teaching the children to read and write in their own language enables them to master English more ease when they take up that study.
1880	In re Camille	Naturalization Court declares that’’ half-breed Indians’’ are not eligible to become naturalized citizens.
1890s		Observers in the field report that successful; missionary teachers learn the tribal language so that they can understand the children and the children can understand them.
1896	Plessy v. Ferguson	Upholds a 1890 Louisiana law requiring railroads to provide ’’equal but separate accommodations for the white, and colored raced.’’ It thereby sanctions state-imposed segregation. If segregation is seen as ‘’a badge of inferiority,’’ the U.S. Supreme Court holds, that is only because ‘’ a race chooses to put that construction upon it.’’ The ruling becomes the legal foundation of racial segregation in the public schools.
1898		Rules for Indian schools:  ‘’All instruction shall be in the English language. Pupils shall be required to converse with employees and each other in English. All school employees must be able to speak English fluently.
1917		Puerto Rico becomes a U.S. territory, ‘’organized but unincorporated.’’ Puerto Rico can elect their own legislature and join the United States Army. The commissioner retains power.
1923	Meyer v Nebraska ruling by the US Supreme Court	The ruling outlawed, as an unconstitutional infringement of individual liberties, arbitrary restrictions on the teaching of languages other than English outside of regular school hours.
1926		The progressive Meriam Report on American Indian education recommends the following: the Indian Service’s providing youth and parents with tools to adapt both to the white and to the Indian world.
1927		Gong Lum v. Rice Affirms a Mississippi school district’s right to require a Chinese-American girl to attend a segregated black school, rejecting her bid to attend the school for whites.
1929		Charles Rhoades, first American Indian to become Commissioner of Indian Affairs, begins to put Meriam Report proposals into practice.
1933		Franklin Roosevelt appoints a longtime Indian-rights advocate, John Collier, as Commissioner of Indian Affairs. Collier promotes sweeping liberalization of Indian education.
1934		Progressive Indian education begins in earnest during the New Deal period. Children are taught through the medium of their own cultural values while becoming aware of the values of white civilization.
1938	Gaines v. Canada	This is the first challenge to racial discrimination in graduate programs to reach the U.S. Supreme Court.
1940		United States grants citizenship to Puerto Ricans.
1940s		Federal policy reverts to forced assimilation of Indian Students.
The late 1940s to mid-1950s		Massive migration, particularly of rural poor from Puerto Rico to New York City. However, an English-only curriculum is enforced, and Spanish is used only for administrative, ’housekeeping’’ purposes.
1946	Mendez v. Westminster	De jure segregation is ruled to be illegal.
1948	Sipuel v. Board of Regent of the University of Oklahoma	Citing the Gaines ruling, the Supreme Court directs the University of Oklahoma to provide a legal education to a black student who had been denied entry to its all-white law school.
1948	Delado et al. v. Bastrop Independent School District	The Supreme Court ruled that segregation of Mexican American students is discriminatory and illegal because it violates the students’ Fourteenth Amendments right.
1940 to early 1960s		To alleviate teacher shortages, U.S. schools recruit Puerto Rican teacher from the island, with nonpermanent positions.
1950	Amendments to the Nationality Act	English literacy required for naturalization.
1952		Puerto Rico becomes a U.S. Commonwealth, a status it retains today.
1954	Brown v Board of Education of Topeka	Unanimously declares that segregating elementary and secondary students by race violates black (and hence all radicalized) children’s constitutional right to equal protection of the law.
1958	National Defense Education Act	The first federal legislation to promote foreign language learning.
1963		The first Spanish-speaking Puerto Rican substitute auxiliary teacher receives a mainland-teaching license.
1965		The National Advisory Council on Indian Education is formed.
1965	Immigration and Nationality Act	The Act eliminated racial criteria for admission expanding immigration especially from Asia and Latin America. The Act also emphasized the goal of ‘family unification’ over occupational skills. This encouraged increased immigration by Mexicans in particular.
1965	Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA)	Funds granted to meet the needs of ‘educationally deprived children
1968	Title VII Bilingual Education Act, an amendment to Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA) amendment	This legislation, commonly called the Bilingual Education Act, heralds a limited change in the way language-minority children are taught in the United States. It recognized their needs, promotes greater access to the curriculum, trains educators in the skills they need (such as ESL and bilingual education), and fosters achievement among language minority students.
1968	Green v. New Kent County School Board	States that district must promptly dismantle segregation not just in student assignment but also in faculty, staff, transportation, extracurricular activities, and facilities. These become the six ’’green factors’’ that are later used by the courts to gauge whether a district has met its obligations to desegregate.
1969		Senate report 91-501, Indian Education: A National Tragedy, a National Challenge, declares: ‘’the dominant policy of the federal government toward the American Indian has been one of coercive assimilation.’’
1970	Diana v. State Board of Education, Covarrubias v. San Diego Unified School District (1971), and Guadalupe v. Tempe Elementary (1971)	These cases lead to major changes in the grade-level promotion of minority students.
1971	Swann b. Charlotte Mecklenburg Board of Education	Authorized mandatory busing, redrawn attendance zones, and the limited use of racial balance quotas as desegregation tools.
1974	Milliken v. Bradley	This is the first major restriction imposed on public school desegregation.
1974	Lau v. Nichols	Established that language programs for language minorities not proficient in English were necessary to provide equal educational opportunities
1974	Reauthorization of Bilingual Act Title Vii of ESEA	Native-language instruction was required for the first time as a condition for receiving bilingual education grants. Bilingual education was defined as transitional (TBE) . Grants could support native-language instruction only to the extent necessary to allow a child to achieve competence in the English language. Funding was thus restricted to TBE; maintenance and Dual language programs were ineligible for funding.
1974	Lau v. Nichols	The U.S. Supreme Court rules that when children arrive in school with little or no knowledge of English, the use of English-only instruction in their education is a violation of their civil rights.
1975	Lau Remedies	Informal guidelines on school’s obligations toward LEP students. This required the provision of bilingual education in districts where the civil right of such student had been violated.
1976	Keyes v. School District no. 1, Denver, Colorado	Established bilingual education as compatible with desegregation.
1977	Milliken v. Bradley	Authorizes courts to require remedial education programs as an antidote to past segregation, in a decision known as Milliken II.
1978	Regent of the University of California v. Allan Bakke	On the basis of Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled that a medical school discriminated against a white applicant on the basis of race. Its decision significantly narrows the use of affirmative action in higher education. Admissions procedures could no longer evaluate disadvantaged candidates on different criteria than nonminority candidates, or establish numerical quotas for disadvantaged students. However, Justice Powell rules that universities have the right to select students on many relevant factors, including race, as long as any individual candidate’s Fourteen Amendment right are not violated.
1978	Reauthorization of Bilingual Education Act Title VII of ESEA	Restrictions on Dual Language programs lifted; The term ‘ Limited English Proficient’ (LEP) introduced, replacing LES (Limited English Speaking).
1980-81	Lau Regulations	The Carter Administration attempted to formalized the Lau Remedies, requiring bilingual instruction for LEP students where feasible. The Reagan Administration subsequently withdrew the proposal, leaving uncertainty about schools’ obligations in this area.
1981	Castaneda v. Pickard	An Appeals court decision established a three-part test to determine whether schools were taking ‘appropriated action’ under the 1974 Equal Educational Opportunity Act. Programs for LEP students (bilingual or otherwise) must be:  (1) based on sound educational theory, (2) implemented with adequate resources, and (3) evaluated and proven effective.
1982	Washington v. Seattle School District No. 1	Strikes down a state antibusing initiative passed by voters, after Seattle voluntarily adopted a desegregation plan involving extensive crosstown busing. A majority of the justices concludes the initiative was racially motivated.
1982	Plyer v. Doe	The U.S. Supreme Court ruled that Texas cannot exclude undocumented children from tuition-free enrollment in the state’s public schools, as Texas legislators had attempted to do.
1983	US English Movement launched	Debated about the dominant place of English in law, society and education became more prominent.
1984	Reauthorization of Bilingual Education Act Title VII of ESEA	While most funding was reserved for TBE, monies for maintenance programs were once again permitted. However, for the first time funds were made available for ‘specail alternative’ English-only programs.
1988	Reauthorization of Bilingual Education Act Title VII of ESEA	Same as in 1984, but 25% of funding given for English-only Special Alternative Instructional (SAIP) programs.
1993		Both English and Spanish become official languages of Puerto Rick.
1994	Reauthorization of Bilingual Education Act Title VII of ESEA (Improving America’s School Act)	Full bilingual proficiency recognized as a lawful education goal Funded Dual language to support Native American languages. The quota for funding SAIP programs was lifted. The new law sought to bring it more difficult for their particular needs to be ignored in policymaking.
1994	Proposition 187	This referendum is overwhelmingly approved by California voters. It would have denied to undocumented immigrants a range of social services, including public education.
1995		The federal Office of Indian Education is allocated a total fiscal-year budget of one dollar. Tribal leaders and pan-Indian organization leaders lobby Congress, hold prayer vigils, and call press conferences to argue for continued funding. Finally, President Clinton maintains the BIA and OIE, vetoing the budget.
1996	Proposition 209	This California referendum prohibits local and state agencies from granting ‘’preferential treatment’’ to individuals based on their race, ethnicity, or sex in the areas of state contracting, employment, and education. It signals a further retreat from affirmative action. Higher education is most affected by the referendum, which became part of the California state constitution.
1998	Proposition 227	This referendum, which restricts bilingual education and instruction of the native language in California public schools passes handily.
2000	Proposition 203 in Arizona	Unz’s English for the Children initiative passed in Arizona ends most bilingual programs.
2002	Question 2 passed in Massachusetts; Amendment 31 defeated in Colorado	Unz’s English for the Children in Massachusetts ends most bilingual programs; the initiative in Colorado, however, is defeated.
2002	No Child Left Behind legislation as a reauthorization of the Elementary and Secondary Act of 1965 and a repeal of the Bilingual Education Act	The Title VII Bilingual Education Act is eliminated. Mandates for accountability through high-stakes testing in content areas and English proficiency, and the threat of sanctions associated with failures to make adequate yearly progress encourage a move towards more English-only programs.
2003	Grutter v. Bollinger and Granz v. Bollinger	After twenty-five years, the U.S. Supreme Court returns to the issue of affirmative action in higher education. These rulings dismissed the Hopwood appellate court decision, The Court also reaffirmed the Bakke precedent, and the right of universities to take racial diversity into account in admissions policies. School cannot employ simple formulas that mechanically assign a numeric value to each candidate’s race, but they can take race into account (among many other factors) in an individualized evaluation process of each person. The divided rulings indicate that the issue will soon be contested again.